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activities Build a Bacteria! Discovery bacteria diversity and get creative making your own model!

activities My career in genomics: career profiles Explore the diversity of career pathways into genomics through this collection of career profiles

videos My career in genomics: conservation genetics In this film Edel Sheerin describes her role as an advanced research assistant working in the field of conservation genetics. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

videos My career in genomics: data science In this film Georgia Whitton talks about her job as a senior data scientist working in the genomic surveillance unit. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

videos My career in genomics: cellular operations In this film Jade Smith talks about her role as an advanced research assistant working in cellular operations. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

videos My career in genomics: cell biology In this film Lucy Holland describes her role as a higher laboratory scientist apprentice working in a cell biology laboratory and studying remotely. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

videos My career in genomics: genetic counselling In this video, Sasha Henriques talks about her career as a genetic counsellor. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

videos My career in genomics: bioinformatics In this film Tobi Alegbe discusses his PhD in bioinformatics, studying Crohn’s disease. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

glossary Genus

A group of closely related species. Scientific species names list the genus before the species

glossary Domain

Highest taxonomic rank of organisms in the three-domain system

stories Disease Detectives: using phylogenetics to track disease outbreaks Phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary relationships between organisms, based on their genomes - now used to track down disease outbreaks globally.

facts What is phylogenetics? Phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary relationships between organisms, based on their genetic material revealed through DNA and RNA sequencing.

activities Our Animal DNA Use online bioinformatics tools to find and compare brand new genome sequences from species sequenced as part of Darwin Tree of Life.

facts What is RNA splicing? Splicing occurs during protein synthesis, and involves cutting out and rearranging sections of mRNA.

facts What is RNA sequencing? RNA sequencing is a technique used to identify the sequence of the bases that make up a molecule of RNA.

facts What is RNA? RNA is a nucleic acid similar to DNA, but with only a single, helical strand of bases. It plays a key role in turning DNA instructions into functional proteins.

facts What is bioinformatics and how do we use it? Bioinformatics is the science of both storing lots of complex biological data, and of analysing it to find new insights, which we use in many different ways.

stories Unsung heroes in science: Margaret Hamilton Margaret Hamilton was a computer scientist who spearheaded software engineering whilst working at NASA during the Apollo missions.

stories Giants in genomics: Jennifer Doudna Jennifer Anne Doudna is a biochemist who won the Nobel Prize for her work in developing CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technology.

stories Unsung heroes in science: Henrietta Lacks While not a scientist, the first successful line of human cells grown in a lab came from a cancer sample from Henrietta, and have become instrumental in biological research.

stories Unsung heroes in science: Barbara McClintock Barbara McClintock was a pioneering geneticist who discovered that genes can ‘jump’. This discovery led to her receiving the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1983.

stories Unsung heroes of science: Marie Maynard Daly Marie Maynard Daly, the first Black woman in the US to receive a PhD in chemistry, worked on nucleic acids, cholesterol links to heart disease and protein synthesis.

facts What is Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT) sequencing? Oxford Nanopore Technology developed third generation sequencers that are portable, able to sequence DNA in remote locations and produce ultra-long reads.

facts Sequencing technologies: past, present and future The sequencing field is fast changing, with new technologies allowing dramatic drop in the cost of sequencing while improving data quality and accessibility.

facts How do we use CRISPR gene editing to study diseases? CRISPR-Cas9 is a genome editing tool used to alter specific sequences of DNA in a cell. It has many uses both in research and in helping us understand disease.

facts What is Genomic Surveillance? Genomic surveillance involves sequencing the genetic material of pathogens and identifying changes linked to the origins or characteristics of a disease.

stories Genomic surveillance in action Genomic surveillance is not new, but developments in the availability, speed and cost of technology mean it has become an essential tool in tackling epidemics.

facts What are Covid-19 variants and why is genomic surveillance of them important? Covid variants arise when mutations in SARS-CoV-2 virus affect how infectious or deadly it is. Genomic surveillance helps track new variants and their impact.

facts What is Covid-19? Coronavirus disease 2019, often called Covid, or Covid-19, is a new viral disease which caused a global pandemic from the end of 2019 into the 2020s.

activities Tech in the Lab Use a micro:bit to explore how creative coding and sensors can help scientists solve tricky problems in the lab!

activities Genomics and Microbes Pack Explore how genomics and DNA can be used to uncover more about the microbial world than ever before. Discover how genetic information about microbes can be used to progress biomedicine and biotechnology!

activities Construct a Bug Follow the DNA clues to discover what genes an unknown bacterial sample contains!

activities Genomics and Adaptations Pack Discover how genetics underpins adaptations that let creatures survive and thrive!

activities Genome Challenge Discover some of the most fundamental differences between living things and ask the question: what really counts for complexity?

activities Amazing Adaptations Pack Explore the amazing adaptations all around us in the natural world! Many of these are the result of creatures having specific instructions in their genetic code allowing them to live how they do.

activities Classify! What makes a bird a bird or a mammal a mammal? Grouping creatures together can show what links different creatures together.

activities Creature Report Share your research like a scientist would. Research your favourite animal or plant and create a poster to communicate your findings.

activities Whose Poo? Some animals can be hard to find even when they are living right under our noses! However, the things they leave behind can often provide useful clues for understanding what creatures are living in a particular habitat.

videos Sequencing at Speed This 3D animation gives a simple overview of next generation DNA sequencing, known as massively parallel sequencing.

videos What does DNA do? This animation explains what DNA does in our bodies and how it makes us the unique individuals we are.

activities Marvellous Microbes Pack What are microbes and what do they do? Discover more about the marvellous microbe world and how it has an impact on how we live our lives.

activities Microbe Maker Discover how DNA can provide clues to how microbes work and whether they are ‘good’ or ‘bad’.

activities Genomics and Genes Pack What is genomics? Explore this world-changing area of research and how the DNA code found in all living things impacts on our world.

activities Genome Generation Express Explore current and potential ethical issues in genetics and genomics with this discussion-based activity.

activities DNA Discovery Pack What is DNA and what does it do? Discover more about this marvellous molecule and how it has an impact on the world around us.

activities Recreate A Face Discover how DNA can provide clues to recreate the faces of people from the past.

activities Code Crackers Discover how DNA sequences code for proteins, giving animals different adaptations for survival.

activities Mindfulness Colouring This mindfulness activity helps you explore your creativity whilst creating a calm atmosphere.

activities Extracting DNA from Fruit All living things have DNA. This hands-on activity will enable you to extract DNA from fruit, such as strawberries, using everyday household items.

activities Investigate! What makes us similar and what makes us different? Carry out your own genetic variation investigation using a selection of household items.

glossary Genome editing A technique used to precisely and efficiently modify DNA within a cell. It can be used to add, remove, or alter DNA in the genome.

videos Life in the Lab: working in a malaria genome modification pipeline This film shows how computer software is used to create DNA sequences that can modify the DNA of malaria parasites.

videos Life in the Lab: working in a DNA sequencing pipeline This film shows all of the processes involved in sequencing a DNA sample; from receiving a sample DNA to releasing the assembled DNA sequence data.

videos Life in the Lab: working in a malaria lab This film shows how scientists work with malaria parasites in the lab; culturing parasites and preparing them so they can be seen using a microscope.

videos Life in the Lab: working with human gut microbiota This film shows how lab scientists work safely with human gut bacteria; culturing them on agar plates and extracting DNA for genome sequencing.

facts What is a stem cell? A stem cell is a cell with the unique ability to develop into specialised cell types in the body. In the future they may be used to replace cells and tissues that have been damaged or lost due to disease.

stories Inbreeding: from champion horses to life-saving mice Humans have been breeding animals for millenia to bring out desirable characteristics. With the thoroughbred race horse there's lots of money at stake but with research mice it's the possibility of life-saving new treatments.

glossary Pollen A powder produced by the male part of plants that contains plant sperm for reproduction.

glossary Genetic Of or relating to genes.

facts What is selective breeding? Selective breeding involves selecting parents that have characteristics of interest in the hope that their offspring inherit those desirable characteristics.

glossary DNA repair The process by which a cell recognises and corrects damage to its DNA.

glossary Point mutation A change in a single base-pair in a strand of DNA.

glossary Homology When two DNA sequences are identical or similar to each other.

glossary Daughter cell A new cell produced when a single cell divides into two.

glossary Biotechnology The use of living organisms and biological processes to make commercially useful products.

glossary DNA sequence The order of the bases in a length of DNA.

glossary Homologous recombination A process where DNA is exchanged between two identical or similar DNA molecules.

glossary Genetically modified (GM) food Food produced from a plant or animal that has had its DNA changed by genetic engineering/modification.

glossary Genetically modified (GM) crop A plant used in agriculture that has had its DNA changed by genetic engineering/modification.

glossary Genetically modified organism (GMO) An organism that has had its genome changed by direct manipulation of its genes in a way that does not happen normally in nature.

facts What is genome editing? Genome editing is a way of making specific changes to the DNA of a cell or organism. An enzyme cuts the DNA at a specific sequence, and when this is repaired by the cell a change or ‘edit’ is made to the sequence.

facts What is a GMO? GMOs are organisms that have had their characteristics changed through the modification of their DNA.

videos DNA sequencing This 3D animation shows the basic steps in the method of DNA sequencing that was used during the Human Genome Project.

stories Tracking ‘superbugs’ Infectious diseases can spread quickly in a hospital environment, particularly if the pathogen that causes the disease is resistant to the drugs relied on to fight it. Genomics may be able to help track these resistant pathogens and nip them in the bud before they become widespread…

stories Science in the time of cholera Although cholera is commonly thought to be a disease of the Victorian era, it is still a significant problem in many areas of the modern world. Genomics research is helping to bring us closer to understanding how we may eliminate it once and for all.

activities Function Finders: BLAST! Decode DNA sequences and discover the proteins they code for using online scientific databases.

glossary Microbiome The full collection of genomes from all the microscopic organisms in a community or environment.

facts What is CRISPR-Cas9? CRISPR-Cas9 is a genome editing tool that is creating a buzz in the science world. It is faster, cheaper and more accurate than previous techniques of editing DNA and has a wide range of potential applications.

stories The ‘eureka’ moment that revolutionised crime solving In 1984, Alec Jeffreys developed the technique of DNA fingerprinting in his laboratory at the University of Leicester. These techniques have revolutionised the way that the police solve crimes.

facts What is a DNA fingerprint? DNA fingerprinting is a method used to identify an individual from a sample of DNA by looking at unique patterns in their DNA.

stories Defeating the little dragon The Guinea worm is a water-transmitted parasite that develops over a year in its host before painfully emerging from the skin. It is hoped that it will soon become the first parasite to be eradicated but there are a few challenges to overcome first…

stories How is genomics being used to tackle neglected tropical diseases? Neglected tropical diseases affect the poorest of the world’s populations but relatively little is known about their biology. Genomics is now providing insight into these diseases and enabling scientists to develop new strategies to prevent and treat these debilitating diseases.

facts How do you map a genome? Genome mapping is used to identify and record the location of genes and the distances between genes on a chromosome. Genome mapping provided a critical starting point for the Human Genome Project.

facts What is gel electrophoresis? Electrophoresis is a technique commonly used in the lab to separate charged molecules, like DNA, according to size.

facts What are helminths? Helminths are worm-like parasites that survive by feeding on a living host to gain nourishment and protection, sometimes resulting in illness of the host. There are a variety of different helminths from the very large to the microscopic.

facts What is PCR (polymerase chain reaction)? PCR is a technique used in the lab to make millions of copies of a particular section of DNA. It was first developed in the 1980s.

stories The ongoing battle against drug resistant malaria Resistance to antimalarial drugs is one of the biggest problems currently facing malaria control. Recent studies looking at the genome of the malaria parasite could help scientists understand how drug resistance has evolved – and develop the tools needed to keep it in check.

interactives You vs. Machine Are you faster than a machine? Compete against the computer to sequence DNA from a capillary sequencing machine.

facts What happens to DNA sequence when it comes off a sequencing machine? DNA sequencing produces huge amounts of data essentially comprising of lots of short sections of DNA letters. The first step is to check that the sequence is of the highest quality before we start to piece the sections together.

stories A weapon against malaria Malaria parasites have a complex life cycle and high variability which has made the development of a vaccine a real challenge. Currently the most advanced vaccine candidate is RTS,S.

stories Malaria: the master of disguise Sequencing the genome of the malaria parasite has revealed interesting clues as to how it is able to evade the human immune system for long enough to cause disease.

facts How are sequenced genomes stored and shared? After a genome has been sequenced, assembled and annotated it needs to be shared in a format that is easily and freely accessible to all. This can be done via a database called a genome browser.

glossary De novo sequencing De novo sequencing is when the genome of an organism is sequenced for the first time.

glossary Drug resistance The ability of a pathogen to evade the effects of a drug designed to kill or inhibit them.

glossary Larvae The immature form of an organism, for example an insect, which will develop into something else in adulthood.

glossary Trimester A period of three months often used to describe the stages of a human pregnancy.

glossary Immunity The ability of an organism to resist a particular infection or disease due to having the specific antibodies or white blood cells needed to defend against it.

glossary pH (chemistry) A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A pH of 7 means the solution is neutral, below 7 is acidic, above 7 is alkaline.

glossary Dormant When an organism has its normal functions suspended or slowed down for a period of time, as if in a deep sleep.

glossary Incubation time The time it takes between becoming infected with a disease and beginning to show symptoms.

glossary Gamete A male or female reproductive cell that contains half the genetic information for an organism. In humans the gametes are the sperm and egg cells.

glossary Endemic A disease or condition that is common in a particular group of people or location.

glossary Malnutrition A condition resulting from a person not eating enough food or not eating the right foods to get necessary calories, protein, carbohydrates, vitamins or minerals.

glossary Anaemia Condition caused by a lack of red blood cells or lack of haemoglobin in the blood. It results in tiredness, pale skin and shortness of breath.

glossary Inflammation An immune reaction that results in localised redness, warmth and swelling. It generally occurs in response to an infection, irritation or injury.

glossary Epidemic The rapid spread of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.

glossary Lumbar puncture A medical procedure where a large needle is inserted into the lower part of the spine. It is used to test for conditions and infections affecting the brain, spinal cord or other parts of the nervous system. Also called a spinal tap.

glossary Spinal fluid A colourless liquid that is secreted from the blood into specific parts of the brain to help maintain the critical pressure within the brain and spinal cord.

glossary Blood smear A diagnostic test where a thin layer of blood is smeared on a glass slide. This is then examined under a microscope for any abnormalities in platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells.

glossary Lymph gland Also known as a lymph node, a lymph gland is an oval-shaped organ that forms part of the lymphatic system. Lymph glands are located around the body, such as the armpit and stomach. They contain immune cells and are important for the proper functioning of the immune system, filtering out foreign particles and unwanted cells.

glossary Lymph A colourless fluid containing immune cells that circulates through the lymphatic system and helps clear the body of foreign particles and unwanted cells.

glossary Insomnia The inability to sleep.

glossary Haemolymphatic The circulatory ‘tissue’, otherwise known as the blood and lymph.

glossary Neurological Relating to the nerves and/or nervous system.

glossary Flagella/flagellum A slender, whip-like structure that enables protozoa, bacteria, sperm etc. to move around.

glossary Tsetse fly A blood-sucking fly in Africa that bites both humans and animals, transmitting African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness).

glossary Womb/uterus A hollow, pear-shaped organ located in a women’s lower abdomen. This is where a baby develops during pregnancy.

glossary Placenta A temporary organ that develops in the uterus/womb of female mammals during pregnancy. It nourishes and maintains the unborn baby via the umbilical cord and is pushed out of the mother after birth.

glossary Chronic A term used to describe the time scale of a disease, chronic refers to an illness that persists for a long time or is constantly reoccurring.

glossary Acute A term used to describe the time scale of a disease, acute refers to an illness that is of short duration, develops quickly and requires urgent care.

facts How do you find out the significance of a genome after sequencing? We’ve sequenced the genome, put it back together and identified the genes, but now we need to find out what this genome can tell us and how it compares to other genomes.

facts How do you identify the genes in a genome? After the sections of DNA sequence have been assembled into a complete genome sequence we need to identify where the genes and key features are, but how do we do this?

facts How do you put a genome back together after sequencing? After DNA sequencing is complete, the fragments of DNA that come out of the machine are all jumbled up. Like a jigsaw puzzle we need to take the pieces of the genome and put them back together.

videos DNA replication This 3D animation shows you how DNA is copied in a cell. It shows how both strands of the DNA helix are unzipped and copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.

facts What is schistosomiasis? Schistosomiasis is a tropical disease caused by a parasite. The parasite is transmitted through contact with fresh water contaminated with the parasite’s larvae.

facts What is African sleeping sickness? African trypanosomiasis is a parasitic disease transmitted by the tsetse fly. It gets its nickname ‘sleeping sickness’ because symptoms can include a disturbed sleep pattern.

facts How is malaria treated and prevented? Malaria is an entirely preventable and treatable disease if tackled early enough. However, there are growing problems with drug resistance that are posing a threat to the global fight against malaria.

videos My career in genomics: evolution In this film Roland Schwarz talks about his research using computers to model and understand evolution. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

videos My career in genomics: cancer biology In this film Niki Patel talks about her research looking at the genetics of cancer. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

videos My career in genomics: immune diseases In this film Gosia Trynka talks about her research looking at the effect of genetic changes on the immune system. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

videos My career in genomics: antibiotic resistance In this film Christine Boinett talks about her research looking at antibiotic resistance in bacteria. This is one of a series of films providing a unique insight into different careers in the field of genomics.

facts What is malaria? Spread by mosquitos, malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and a global public health challenge.

videos Direct-to-consumer genetic testing This film explores direct-to-consumer genetic testing through the stories of people who have considered taking this type of genetic test.

activities Function Finders Discover how DNA sequences code for proteins with different roles and functions.

videos From DNA to protein This 3D animation shows how proteins are made in the cell from the information in the DNA code.

videos The Human Genome Project: Personal Stories This film features personal accounts from scientists from the USA and UK who were involved in the Human Genome Project.

facts Timeline: History of genomics A timeline depicting the key events in the history of genomics and genetic research alongside those in popular culture. From the discovery of DNA, and the election of Roosevelt, right through to whole genome sequencing and Andy Murray winning Wimbledon for the first time.

stories Genome-wide association studies Genome-wide association studies have led to the discovery of hundreds of genes with a role in common diseases.

stories Direct-to-consumer testing Have you ever wanted to know more about your genetic make-up? Direct-to-consumer testing is now making this possible through tests you can order online. But is there a more serious side to us having such easy access to all of the information in our genomes?

stories Giants in genomics: Robert Waterston Robert H. Waterston is an American biologist well known for his work on sequencing the genome of the nematode worm C. elegans alongside John Sulston. He is also recognised for his part in sequencing the human, mouse and chimpanzee genomes.

stories Unravelling the double helix The discovery of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 is one of the most famous scientific discoveries of all time.

stories Revealing DNA as the molecule of life How was DNA discovered to be the carrier of genetic information? Read on to find out...

stories The discovery of DNA How was DNA first discovered and who discovered it? Read on to find out...

stories Giants in genomics: Allan Bradley Allan Bradley was director of the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute from 2000 to 2010. His appointment as director coincided with the completion of the draft human genome sequence by the Human Genome Project.

facts What is shotgun sequencing? Shotgun sequencing involves randomly breaking up DNA sequences into lots of small pieces and then reassembling the sequence by looking for regions of overlap.

facts What is clone-by-clone sequencing? During clone-by-clone sequencing, a map of each chromosome of the genome is made before the DNA is split up into fragments ready for sequencing.

videos BRAF: From Gene to Cancer Therapy (video) This film tells the story of how DNA sequencing was used to identify that the gene BRAF is commonly mutated in malignant melanoma, and how this has led to the development of a targeted drug against the mutation.

stories Using yeast in biology Yeast is one of the simplest eukaryotic organisms but many essential cellular processes are the same in yeast and humans. It is therefore an important organism to study to understand basic molecular processes in humans.

stories Giants in genomics: Rosalind Franklin Rosalind Elsie Franklin was a British biophysicist and X-ray crystallographer whose fundamental research was critical to Watson and Crick’s discovery of the structure of DNA.

stories Giants in genomics: Maurice Wilkins Maurice Wilkins shared the Nobel Prize with Francis Crick and James Watson in 1962 for their joint discovery of the structure of DNA. Naturally reticent, Wilkins didn’t initially stand forward to give his own account of the DNA story so few knew of his direct involvement in the project.

stories Giants in genomics: James Watson James Watson and his British colleague Francis Crick discovered the double helix structure of DNA. For this fundamental finding James, Francis and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1962.

stories Giants in genomics: Fred Sanger The Sanger Institute takes its name from the double Nobel Prize winner and ‘father of genomics’, Frederick Sanger.

stories Giants in genomics: Francis Crick Francis Crick and his American colleague, James Watson, discovered the double helix structure of DNA. For this fundamental finding Francis, James and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1962.

stories Giants in genomics: Francis Collins Dr Francis Collins led the Human Genome Project from 1993. In his work, he was responsible for discovering the genes mutated in cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease. He is currently director of the US National Institutes of Health (NIH).

stories Giants in genomics: John Sulston Professor Sir John Sulston was the founding director of the Sanger Centre (now the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute) from 1992 until 2000 when the ‘working draft’ of the human genome sequence was completed.

stories Giants in genomics: Janet Thornton Professor Dame Janet Thornton was director of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), which shares the Wellcome Genome Campus with the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, from 2001 to 2015.

stories How is pharmacogenomics being used? In a small number of cases, doctors are able to use pharmacogenomics in their treatment of patients.

stories Of mice and men The mouse is closely related to humans with a striking similarity to us in terms of anatomy, physiology and genetics. This makes the mouse an extremely useful model organism.

stories The African clawed frog While many species of amphibians have been studied by scientists, the one that stands out in genetics is the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis.

facts What is meiosis? Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original amount of genetic information. These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females.

glossary Leading strand The leading strand is a single DNA strand that, during DNA replication, is replicated in the 3’ – 5’ direction (same direction as the replication fork). DNA is added to the leading strand continuously, one complementary base at a time.

glossary Lagging strand The lagging strand is a single DNA strand that, during DNA replication, is replicated in the 5' - 3' direction (opposite direction to the replication fork). DNA is added to the lagging strand in discontinuous chunks called ‘okazaki fragments’.

glossary Amoeba A microscopic, single-celled organism that has the ability to alter its shape. Amoebae live in fresh and salt water, in wet soil and in animals.

glossary Adaptor A short, chemically-synthesised, double-stranded DNA molecule which is used to link together two other DNA molecules.

glossary Vaccine A biological preparation that is given to an individual to stimulate their immune system so that it will recognise a particular pathogen in the future. A vaccine usually contains a small amount of the pathogen so that the body will recognise it as foreign and produce antibodies against it.

glossary Tissue A group of specialised cells that work together to perform a specific function in the body.

glossary Therapeutic Relating to the treatment, curing or healing of a condition or disease.

glossary Susceptibility The likelihood of being vulnerable to a particular thing, for example, a genetic disease.

glossary Species A group of closely-related organisms that have common physical and genetic characteristics and are able to interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

glossary Sex chromosome A chromosome that contains gender-specific genetic information. In humans, men have an X chromosome and a Y chromosome whereas women have two X chromosomes. Some genetic disorders are a result of changes in the sex chromosomes.

glossary Selective breeding The process of breeding animals or plants to bring out particular desirable characteristics in future generations.

glossary Retina A layer of tissue lining the inner surface of the eye that contains cells sensitive to light. These cells trigger nerve impulses that pass, via the optic nerve, to the brain, forming an image and enabling us to see.

glossary Reference genome The genome sequence of an organism that is used as a representative example of the set of genes in the genome of that particular species. It can be used as a template for assembling and comparing individual genomes of the same species.

glossary Radioactive Material that emits radiation energy.

glossary Prenatal ‘Before birth’.

glossary Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) A test for a genetic condition that is carried out on embryos created through IVF before they are implanted into the woman. It enables people with a family history of a genetic condition to ensure that only embryos without the genetic condition are used and that the risk of their child being unhealthy is reduced.

glossary Polypeptide A single chain of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptide molecules.

glossary Pneumonia An infection of the lungs that causes the air sacs to fill with pus and other fluids. This makes it difficult for oxygen to be absorbed into the blood. It is commonly caused by viral or bacterial infections.

glossary Platelets A component of blood that is important in the clotting process. If a blood vessel is injured platelets change shape and stick together to form a blood clot.

glossary Plasmid A small circle of genetic material, typically DNA in bacterial cells, physically separated from chromosomal DNA that replicates independently. Plasmids are used as vectors to transfer genes between cells.

glossary Physiological The normal, healthy functioning of an organism’s body and organs.

glossary Phenotype The physical traits and characteristics of an organism resulting from their genetic makeup.

glossary Pancreas A gland located behind the stomach that secretes enzymes into the intestine to aid digestion. The pancreas produces the hormone insulin that regulates the absorption of sugar by cells.

glossary Organ A collection of cells and tissues that perform a specific function in the body.

glossary Obesity An abnormally high accumulation of body fat which can have a negative effect on health.

glossary Non-coding RNA A functional RNA molecule that is transcribed from DNA but is not translated into a protein.

glossary Neurotransmitter A chemical substance that transmits messages between nerve cells.

glossary Mucus A slippery substance secreted by the mucus membranes, for example the mouth and throat, that lubricates and protects the inner surfaces of the body.

glossary Molecular biology A branch of biology that deals with the interactions between the molecules in our cells.

glossary Mitosis Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division) with the same amount of genetic material as the original parent cell.

glossary Microbe (microorganism) A living organism that is too small to see with the naked eye, such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa. Some microbes cause disease.

glossary Meiosis Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the amount of genetic information as the original parent cell. These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females.

glossary Marker A gene or fragment of DNA with a known location on a chromosome. Markers can be used to establish the relative location of specific regions of the genome that might be of interest.

glossary Insulin A hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates the amount of the sugar glucose in the blood. A lack of insulin or an inability to respond to insulin causes diabetes.

glossary Ion An electrically charged particle formed when an atom loses or gains electrons.

glossary Immune response Your body’s defence system that recognises and defends the body against pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.

glossary Human papillomavirus (HPV) A group of viruses that infect your skin and the moist membranes lining your body, such as your mouth, throat and genitals. Cause abnormal tissue growth and genital warts.

glossary Herbicide A type of chemical used to kill unwanted plants.

glossary Heart failure A condition when the heart can no longer pump enough blood around the body. It usually occurs when the heart muscle has become too weak or stiff to work efficiently.

glossary Genotyping The process of determining the genetic makeup (genotype) of an individual by examining their DNA.

glossary Genotype The genetic makeup of a cell, organism or individual.

glossary Genetic/gene variant A letter or region of a gene that is different in different individuals. The most common gene variants are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) where a single DNA base is altered. There can be numerous variants for any given gene.

glossary Fungi/fungus A large group of organisms that includes yeasts, moulds and mushrooms. Fungi are distinct from plants, animals and bacteria because they have cell walls that contain chitin.

glossary Foetus The unborn young of an animal still in the womb or egg.

glossary Fluoresce/fluorescence The emission of light by a substance following exposure to light or radiation.

glossary Exome All of the exons in a genome, which consist of the DNA that contains the instructions to make proteins.

glossary Eugenics The belief and practice of improving the genetic quality of the human population.

glossary Escherichia coli (E. coli) A rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. Most strains of E. coli are harmless but some can cause food poisoning.

glossary Endoscope A medical instrument with a light attached that is used to look inside the body.

glossary Endocarditis A type of heart infection where the inner lining of the heart, called the endocardium, becomes swollen. It usually occurs when bacteria attach to damaged areas of the heart.

glossary Electrode A conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves an object.

glossary Drug A substance that has a physiological or biochemical effect on our bodies. These effects are generally intended to be beneficial but can cause harm in some people.

glossary Double helix The structure formed by double-stranded molecules of DNA. The double helix structure of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.

glossary Dopamine A chemical in the body that controls movement, emotional response and our ability to experience pleasure and pain.

glossary DNA ligase An enzyme that joins together two strands of DNA.

glossary Compound A substance formed when two or more chemical elements are chemically bonded together.

glossary Codominance When the alleles of a gene are expressed equally and neither is dominant or recessive.

glossary Chloride An ion formed when a chlorine molecule gains an electron (negatively charged particle) or when hydrogen chloride is dissolved in water.

glossary Chemotherapy A type of cancer treatment that uses chemicals to target and kill rapidly dividing cells in the body. It can lead to side effects such as hair loss.

glossary Chelation Therapy A medical procedure that removes heavy metals, such as mercury, from the blood. A chemical is injected into the patient which then binds to the heavy metal so that it is excreted in the urine.

glossary Centromere The region of DNA at the centre of a chromosome which joins the two sister chromatids together.

glossary Cell The basic structural, functional, biological unit of all living organisms. Cells provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food and carry out the important day-to-day functions for life.

glossary Capillary A very thin acrylic fibre used in capillary DNA sequencing. DNA is able to pass through the middle of the fibre with small fragments passing through easier than larger fragments.

glossary Biochemical Relating to the chemical processes that occur within living organisms.

glossary Autopsy The surgical examination of a dead body to find out the exact cause of death. Also known as a post-mortem examination.

glossary Autism A developmental disability that affects how a person communicates with, and relates to, other people. It is often diagnosed in early childhood and is characterised by repetitive behaviour, such as stacking or lining up objects.

glossary Arthritis A common condition causing pain and inflammation in the joints.

glossary Anaemia A decline in red blood cells or haemoglobin in the blood resulting in a decreased amount of oxygen being carried around the body. It results in tiredness, shortness of breath and pale skin.

glossary Agarose gel A complex sugar material, generally extracted from seaweed. It is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of DNA by size using electrophoresis.

glossary Acrylamide gel A white, odourless gel used in gel electrophoresis, a method used to separate out molecules such as DNA, based on their size and charge.

facts Mitosis versus meiosis Cells divide and reproduce in two ways, mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in four sex cells. Below we highlight the keys differences and similarities between the two types of cell division.

facts What is mitosis? Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division).

stories Pharmacogenomics and cancer Pharmacogenomics is a specific kind of genetic testing that offers key advantages for doctors trying to choose the best drugs for their patients.

facts Timeline: Organisms that have had their genomes sequenced To develop techniques for DNA sequencing, scientists began by sequencing the genomes of small, simple organisms. As techniques improved it became possible to sequence the genomes of more complex organisms, such as the human genome. Now, we have a large catalogue of genomes that have been sequenced that we can study and compare.

stories Personal genomics: the future of healthcare? Personal genomics is an area of genomics focusing specifically on the sequencing and analysis of one person’s genome, and then giving them their genomic information.

stories Are humans still evolving? For much of nature, natural selection and ‘survival of the fittest’ still play a dominant role; only the strongest can survive in the wild. As little as a few hundred years ago, the same was true for humans, but what about now?

stories Evolution of modern humans The origin of modern humans has probably been the most debated issue in evolutionary biology over the last few decades.

stories Evolution of the human brain The human brain, in all its staggering complexity, is the product of millions of years of evolution.

stories Giants in genomics: Eric Lander Eric Lander is the founding director of the Broad Institute of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Harvard. He was one of the leaders of the Human Genome Project and his work has been key in developing tools to investigate disease.

stories Giants in genomics: Mike Stratton Professor Sir Mike Stratton is the director of the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute and co-leader of the Cancer Genome Project.

stories Adverse drug reactions An adverse drug reaction is when a medication given as instructed and at a normal dose has an unwanted or harmful effect on a patient.

stories How is the completed human genome sequence being used? It has been over a decade since the Human Genome Project was finished, so what has been happening since and how is the completed human genome sequence being used?

stories When was the Human Genome Project completed? In 2003, two years ahead of schedule, scientists announced that the human genome had been sequenced with an accuracy of 99.99 per cent. It was described as ‘the end of the beginning’.

stories What was the ‘draft sequence’ of the Human Genome Project? The announcement of the first draft of the human genome on 26 June 2000 was big news.

stories Why was there a race to sequence the human genome? The entry of Celera Genomics into the human genome sequencing arena in 1998 galvanised the public effort, leading to a race to sequence the human genome.

stories How did the Human Genome Project make science more accessible? The Human Genome Project was a pioneer for encouraging open access to scientific research. In 1996, those involved agreed that all new information produced should be made freely available to all within 24 hours.

stories How did patenting cause conflicts within the Human Genome Project? Some scientists involved in the Human Genome Project upset the collaborative nature by trying to patent sections of the DNA sequence for their own financial gain.

stories The pilot project for the Human Genome Project: C. elegans John Sulston and Bob Waterston led the way for the Human Genome Project after they successfully sequenced the genome of the nematode worm, Caenorhabditis elegans, the first animal to be sequenced.

stories Who was involved in the Human Genome Project? The Human Genome Project brought scientists together from across the globe. Worldwide collaboration and support was an essential part of the project’s success.

stories How did the Human Genome Project come about? It was a project of such a huge size that no one thought it would be possible at that time, but with the support of key scientists and considerable funding, the Human Genome Project began…

facts What is inheritance? Inheritance is the process by which genetic information is passed on from parent to child. This is why members of the same family tend to have similar characteristics.

facts What is a telomere? Telomeres are distinctive structures found at the ends of our chromosomes. They consist of the same short DNA sequence repeated over and over again.

facts What is evolution? In biology, evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection.

facts What are infectious diseases? Infectious diseases are caused by microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi or parasites and can spread between individuals.

facts What is gene therapy? Gene therapy is when DNA is introduced into a patient to treat a genetic disease. The new DNA usually contains a functioning gene to correct the effects of a disease-causing mutation.

stories Genetic counselling Genetic counsellors are health professionals who help people faced with the possibility of a genetic disease to make informed decisions about their futures.

facts What is capillary sequencing? By the mid-1990s, when the Human Genome Project was in full swing, scientists were sequencing DNA using capillary sequencers.

videos Role of Cancer Genes This flash animation shows you how DNA mutations are involved in the development of cancer.

videos Cancer: Rogue Cells This animation describes how cancer grows within the body and how different factors can lead to cancer development.

facts What is colorectal cancer? Colorectal cancer, also known as bowel cancer, is a complex disease that is influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors.

facts What is Salmonella? Salmonella are a group of bacteria that cause a wide spectrum of diseases. They are able to cause significant morbidity, and in some case, mortality, in both humans and animals.

stories Pacbio and third generation sequencing With third generation sequencing, sequencing a genome has become a cheaper, faster and more sophisticated process.

stories Next-generation sequencing Next-generation sequencing brought with it a fundamentally different approach to DNA sequencing, cutting the time and cost needed to sequence a genome.

stories Safer, improved sequencing in the 1980s Automatic DNA sequencing machines became commercially available in the late 1980s. They allowed scientists to carry out DNA sequencing more safely and efficiently.

stories The dawn of DNA sequencing The Sanger sequencing method, developed in 1977, enabled scientists to read the genetic code for the first time. It is based on the natural process of DNA replication.

activities Genome Generation Debate current and potential issues in genetics and genomics with this card-based discussion activity.

activities Spot the Difference: Zebrafish Step into the shoes of a genetic scientist and carry out a phenotype analysis with the model organism, zebrafish.

activities Malaria Challenge: Managing Malaria Take on the role of a programme manager for a community at high risk of malaria and, using the information provided, work out the best strategy for eliminating the disease from the area.

activities Malaria Challenge: Funding Decisions If you were given £20 million to eradicate malaria, how would you spend it? In this activity you get to find out.

activities Malaria Challenge: The Big Debate What is the best way to eradicate malaria? In this activity you will explore how the different stages of the malaria life cycle can be targeted by different treatments and prevention strategies.

activities Contamination Detectives Play detective and uncover how microbes spread around the surfaces you touch if you don’t wash your hands properly!

activities MRSA Gene Hunt Explore antibiotic resistance by taking a closer look at the genomes of two strains of the bacterium, Staphylococcus aureus.

activities Balloon Bugs Discover more about the basic shape and structure of different bacteria through this balloon modelling activity.

activities Handshake Hazard Discover how microbes, such as bacteria and viruses, can be spread from person to person.

activities Sneeze Zone Through this fun activity you can learn more about the spread of microbes and their potential to infect people.

activities Build a Bug Explore the features of two closely related subspecies of the bacteria, Salmonella. Find out how the differences in their genomes results in their ability to cause two very different diseases.

activities BRAF: From Gene to Cancer Therapy Take on the role of a genome researcher and look at real cancer DNA datasets, taken from cancer patients, to find areas of mutation in the BRAF gene.

activities KRAS: Cancer Mutation Use real genomic data to find mutations in a gene associated with pancreatic, lung and colorectal cancers.

facts What is achondroplasia? Achondroplasia is a genetic disorder affecting bone development that results in short-limb dwarfism.

facts What is Down's syndrome? Down’s syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra copy of chromosome 21.

facts What is HIV? HIV is a virus that attacks the immune system and, if left untreated, causes AIDS.

facts What is tuberculosis? Tuberculosis is a disease caused by a bacterium that mainly affects the lungs to cause a persistent and, occasionally bloody, cough.

facts What are Streptococcal infections? Streptococcal infections are any type of infection caused by the group of bacteria Streptococcus.

facts What are Staphylococcal infections? Staphylococcal infections are a group of infections caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus. Infection causes a range of symptoms, from skin conditions to food poisoning.

facts What is antibiotic resistance? Antibiotic resistance is when bacteria develop the ability to survive exposure to antibiotics designed to kill them or stop their growth.

facts What is genetic testing? Genetic testing is an incredibly useful tool for identifying changes or mutations in DNA that could lead to genetic disease.

facts Is cancer a genetic disease? Cancer is the most common human genetic disease. The transition from a normal cell to a malignant cancer is driven by changes to a cell’s DNA, also known as mutations.

facts What is dementia? Dementia is used to describe a general decline in all areas of mental ability. It is caused by brain injury or diseases such as Alzheimer’s.

facts What is Alzheimer's disease? Alzheimer’s is a disease that slowly and progressively destroys the brain. It is also described as a complex disease because it can be influenced by a range of genetic and environmental factors.

facts What is a complex disease? Many common diseases are influenced by a combination of multiple genes and environmental factors. These diseases are referred to as complex diseases.

facts What is sickle cell anaemia? Sickle cell anaemia is an inherited blood disorder in which red blood cells develop abnormally.

facts What is Huntington's disease? Huntington’s disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that usually develops in middle to late adult life.

facts What is hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer? Hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer is a rare condition, but it is the commonest inherited syndrome that predisposes sufferers to early-onset colorectal cancer.

facts What is hereditary haemochromatosis? Hereditary haemochromatosis is also known as iron overload disease. It is an inherited disorder in which iron accumulates in the blood because too much is absorbed by the intestines.

facts What are haemophilia A & B? Haemophilia A and B are two disorders characterised by slow and inefficient formation of blood clots leading to prolonged bleeding and spontaneous internal bleeding.

facts What is familial adenomatous polyposis? Familial adenomatous polyposis is an inherited cancer syndrome that predisposes patients to early-onset colorectal cancer, and some other cancers.

facts What is muscular dystrophy? Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy are two inherited muscle-wasting diseases caused by mutations in the same gene on the X chromosome.

facts What is a genetic disorder? A genetic disorder is a disease that is caused by a change, or mutation, in an individual’s DNA sequence.

facts What are single gene disorders? Single gene disorders are caused by DNA changes in one particular gene, and often have predictable inheritance patterns.

facts What is a chromosome disorder? A chromosome disorder results from a change in the number or structure of chromosomes.

facts What is Fragile-X syndrome? Fragile X is a common inherited syndrome that causes intellectual disability. It affects one in every 2,000 males and one in every 6,000-8,000 females.

facts What are model organisms? A model organism is a species that has been widely studied, usually because it is easy to maintain and breed in a laboratory setting and has particular experimental advantages.

facts What is genetic engineering? Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way.

facts Timeline: The Human Genome Project The Human Genome Project, which began officially in 1990, was the largest international collaboration ever undertaken in biology and involved thousands of scientists.

stories What is DNA sequencing? DNA sequencing is the process of working out the order of the bases, A, C, G and T, in a strand of DNA.

debates Should animals be used in research? Animals, from the fruit fly to the mouse, are widely used in scientific research. They are crucial for allowing scientists to learn more about human biology and health, and for developing new medicines.

stories Sequencing the worm The 1950s and early 1960s saw a dazzling explosion in molecular biology. The structure of DNA had been uncovered and the mysteries of biology seemed eminently solvable. What would be the next big thing?

facts How are drugs designed and developed? Producing a new drug is an expensive and time-consuming process that is subject to extensive regulation.

facts Why use the mouse in research? Humans and mice share many common genetic features and by examining the physiology, anatomy and metabolism of a mouse, scientists can gain a valuable insight into how humans function.

facts Why use yeast in research? Baker’s yeast, or Saccharomyces cerevisiae as it is also known, is among the best-studied experimental organisms.

facts Why use the frog in research? Much of our current knowledge about the mechanisms of early development in vertebrates comes from studies using the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) and Western clawed frog (Xenopus tropicalis).

facts Why use the fly in research? The fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) is one of the most well understood of all the model organisms.

facts What is the Illumina method of DNA sequencing? Illumina sequencing has been used to sequence many genomes and has enabled the comparison of DNA sequences to improve understanding of health and disease.

facts What is the 454 method of DNA sequencing? In 2005, 454 Life Sciences launched the first next-generation DNA sequencer – a big leap forward in DNA sequencing technology.

facts Types of genome sequencing Genome sequencing can mean sequencing an organism's entire genome or just focusing on sequencing very specific areas of DNA.

facts What types of mutation are there? There are lots of different mutations that can occur in our DNA.

facts What is a mutation? A mutation is a change that occurs in our DNA sequence, either due to mistakes when the DNA is copied or as the result of environmental factors such as UV light and cigarette smoke.

facts What is gene expression? Gene expression is the process by which the instructions in our DNA are converted into a functional product, such as a protein.

facts What is genetic variation? Genetic variation is a term used to describe the variation in the DNA sequence in each of our genomes. Genetic variation is what makes us all unique, whether in terms of hair colour, skin colour or even the shape of our faces.

facts What is a gene? Genes are small sections of DNA within the genome that code for proteins. They contain the instructions for our individual characteristics – like eye and hair colour.

facts What is a chromosome? Chromosomes are bundles of tightly coiled DNA located within the nucleus of almost every cell in our body. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

facts What is DNA replication? DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division.

facts What is the 'Central Dogma'? The ‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a functional product. It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer of the structure of DNA.

facts What is a cell? Cells are the basic building blocks of living things. The human body is composed of trillions of cells, all with their own specialised function.

facts What is a genome? A genome is an organism’s complete set of genetic instructions. Each genome contains all of the information needed to build that organism and allow it to grow and develop.

facts What are dominant and recessive alleles? Different versions of a gene are called alleles. Alleles are described as either dominant or recessive depending on their associated traits.

facts What is pharmacogenomics? Pharmacogenomics is the tailoring of drug treatments to people’s genetic makeup, a form of ‘personalised medicine’.

stories What was the Human Genome Project for? The Human Genome Project, which began officially in 1990, was the largest international collaboration ever undertaken in biology and involved thousands of scientists.

facts What are BAC libraries? During the Human Genome Project, researchers had to find a way to reduce the entire human genome into chunks, as it was too large to be sequenced in one go. To do this they created a store of DNA fragments called a BAC library.

debates Is germline gene therapy ethical? Germline gene therapy targets the reproductive cells, meaning any changes made to the DNA will be passed on to the next generation. Consequently, the practice has dramatically divided opinion.

stories Treating the bubble babies: gene therapy in use Some children with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), a genetic disorder characterised by a reduced number of immune cells, have been treated using gene therapy.

debates Is it ethical to have a national DNA database? The National DNA Database has proved to be a valuable tool in the fight against crime. However, many people are concerned about how it has evolved from a database containing genetic information on convicted criminals to one that has information from a much wider group of people.

facts What is a clinical trial? A clinical trial is a research investigation when a new treatment is first given to humans, with or without a disease, to establish if the drug is safe and effective at treating the disease.

facts What is the UK National DNA Database? The National DNA Database (NDNAD) holds the DNA profiles and samples from a select number of UK individuals.

debates Should all scientific research be made open access? Open access refers to peer-reviewed scholarly research that is available, unrestricted, to anyone with an internet connection.

stories Scaling up for the Human Genome Project By the mid-1990s, when the Human Genome Project was in full swing, scientists were sequencing DNA using capillary sequencers.

interactives Saving the Devil This multimedia resource tells the story of the Tasmanian devil and the transmissible cancer that threatens its existence

interactives Malaria Challenge In Malaria Challenge you can explore the different stages of malaria and how scientists are trying to find new ways of preventing and treating this deadly tropical disease.

interactives Cell Snap This computer game allows you to explore the key features of a human cell. The aim of the game is to match pairs of components from within a human cell.

activities Sequence Bracelets In this activity you can make a bracelet of DNA sequence from organisms including a human, chimpanzee, butterfly, carnivorous plant or flesh-eating bacteria.

videos Zoom in on your genome This animation shows where and how the human genome is stored within our cells.

videos How the human genome was sequenced This animation introduces you to the human genome and shows how the first human genome was sequenced in the Human Genome Project.

activities Yummy Gummy DNA Make your own edible DNA double helix out of sweets!

facts Where did DNA sequencing begin? DNA sequencing is the process of determining the order of bases in a length of DNA. Its development has helped to dramatically advance our understanding of genetics.

facts Why use the zebrafish in research? Since the 1960s, the zebrafish (Danio rerio) has become increasingly important to scientific research. It has many characteristics that make it a valuable model for studying human genetics and disease.

facts Why use the worm in research? While the fruit fly has a long history as a model organism, the nematode worm (Caenorhabditis elegans) has only been used as a model organism since the early 1960s.

facts What does DNA do? The DNA code contains instructions needed to make the proteins and molecules essential for our growth, development and health.

facts What is DNA? DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a long molecule that contains our unique genetic code. Like a recipe book it holds the instructions for making all the proteins in our bodies.

glossary White blood cell Cells with a key role in the immune system, defending the body against disease and infection. There are a number of types of white blood cell, including lymphocytes.

glossary Virus Small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms. Can infect all life forms from animals, to plants. Influenza is a virus.

glossary Tumour suppressor gene A gene that halts cell division to prevent the formation of a cancerous tumour. If mutated they can act like a broken brake, allowing cell division to occur at an uncontrollable rate.

glossary Tuberculosis A bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It mainly affects the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body, such as the bones or nervous system.

glossary Trisomy When three copies of a chromosome is present. Down’s syndrome is the result of trisomy.

glossary Translation The second step during protein synthesis where the message from DNA for making a protein has been taken to the ribosome and a protein is constructed with the help of tRNA.

glossary Transgenic An organism that contains additional, artificially-introduced genetic material in every cell.

glossary Transfer RNA (tRNA) A carrier molecule important in protein synthesis. It is responsible for reading the instructions held by DNA and then carrying amino acids to the ribosome ready to make a protein as instructed.

glossary Transcription The first step during protein synthesis when the DNA in a gene is copied to produce an RNA transcript called messenger RNA (mRNA).

glossary Trait A distinguishing quality or characteristic. A disease trait may be a particular symptom that signals a specific disease.

glossary Terminator A version of DNA base (A, C, G or T) that stops the DNA sequencing reaction when it binds to the DNA strand.

glossary Telomeres Sections of DNA found at the ends of each of our chromosomes, consisting of the same sequence of bases repeated over and over. They protect the ends of chromosomes by forming a cap.

glossary Telomerase This is an enzyme that adds the DNA sequence repeat TTAGGG, also known as telomeres, to the ends of chromosomes.

glossary T-cell Subset of lymphocyte white blood cell that play a central role in human immunity.

glossary Stroke Serious medical condition that occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is cut off and brain cells are damaged or die.

glossary Streptococcus Any type of infection caused by the group of bacteria Streptococcus. Infections vary in severity from mild throat infections to pneumonia.

glossary Stem cells Cells that have the potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth.

glossary Staphylococcus A group of infections caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus. The most common of this group of bacteria is Staphylococcus aureus.

glossary Somatic cells Any cell forming the body of an organism. Includes all cells except the sex cells/germ cells.

glossary Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) Most common type of genetic variation among people. They represent a change in a single DNA base (A, C, G or T) in the DNA code.

glossary Single gene disorder Disorders caused by defects in one particular gene, and often have simple and predictable inheritance patterns.

glossary Sigmoidoscopy Medical procedure where a doctor looks into the rectum and bowel of a patient using an instrument, inserted into the bottom, called a sigmoidoscope.

glossary Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) A genetic disorder characterised by a reduced number of immune cells. Can be treated with gene therapy.

glossary Serotypes A group of closely related microorganisms distinguished by a common set of antigens.

glossary Semi-conservative Term to describe DNA after replication, DNA molecules consist of one brand new and one of the original chains of nucleotide bases.

glossary Salmonella A group of bacteria that cause a wide spectrum of infectious diseases, including food poisoning and typhoid fever.

glossary RNA polymerase Small organelles found in our cells. They are responsible for assembling amino acids into proteins during protein synthesis.

glossary Ribosome Small organelles found in our cells. They are responsible for assembling amino acids into proteins during protein synthesis.

glossary Retrovirus A group of RNA viruses which insert a DNA copy of their genome into the host cell in order to replicate, for example, HIV.

glossary Primer A short strand of RNA that acts as a starting point for DNA replication.

glossary Prenatal genetic testing Genetic tests carried out in the first, second and third trimesters to help determine whether a foetus has a disease or genetic abnormality, such as Down’s syndrome.

glossary Predictive genetic testing Genetic tests designed to detect specific mutated genes to determine the likelihood of an individual developing a particular disease.

glossary Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) A technique to make large quantities of a specific fragment of DNA. It is often used in DNA testing and fingerprinting to amplify small amounts of DNA so that scientists have enough to work with.

glossary Pluripotent A cell capable of developing into any type of cell or tissue in the body.

glossary Placebo A treatment that visibly resembles the experimental drug but has no effect on the individual. Used in clinical trials to provide a control test.

glossary Pharmacogenomics Tailoring a drug treatments to match a person’s genetic makeup – a form of ‘personalised medicine’.

glossary Personal genomics An area of genomics focusing specifically on the sequencing and analysis of one person’s genome.

glossary Peer review The evaluation of a piece of research by one or more people in the same field and of similar competence to the producers of the work.

glossary Pathogen An infectious agent that causes disease or illness to its host. Usually a bacteria, virus or parasite.

glossary Parkinson’s disease A neurodegenerative condition in which part of the brain becomes progressively more damaged. Primarily affects movement leading to tremors and muscle stiffness.

glossary Parasite An organism that lives in or on another organism and benefits at the expense of their host. Malaria is a type of parasite.

glossary Ovary Reproductive gland in which the female reproductive cells, eggs, are produced.

glossary Organelle A functional structure found within eukaryotic cells. Organelles carry out functions such as making proteins, processing chemicals and generating energy for the cell.

glossary Open access The practice of providing unrestricted and free access to the results of research, often via the internet.

glossary Oncogene A gene that normally directs cell growth. If mutated, an oncogene acts like a car accelerator stuck on drive, leading to uncontrolled cell growth, and cancer.

glossary Nucleus A structure at the centre of all eukaryotic cells that contains the genome and acts as the ‘control room’ for the cell.

glossary Nucleosomes A level of DNA packaging present within chromosome. Nucleosomes are formed from a single length of DNA wrapped around a series of proteins called histones.

glossary Non-myeloblative conditioning This involves the bone marrow being partially killed to supress the immune system. This may be done prior to a stem cell transplant, to avoid rejection.

glossary Non-coding DNA Sections of DNA that do not code for proteins. Although first called junk DNA it is now becoming clearer that much of this DNA has a function in controlling gene expression and chromosome structure. The amount of non-coding DNA varies amongst different species.

glossary Neurodegenerative disease Range of conditions that affect the neurons in the human brain and cause progressive brain damage. Affect balance, movement, talking and memory. For example, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease.

glossary Natural selection The process where those organisms better adapted to their environment survive and pass on their beneficial characteristics to their offspring.

glossary Mutant An organism resulting from or showing the effect of a genetic mutation.

glossary Musculoskeletal The muscular and skeletal systems. Provides form, support, stability and movement to the body.

glossary Muscular dystrophy An inherited disorder that gradually causes the muscles to weaken.

glossary MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) A form of staphylococcal infection that is resistant to a number of commonly used antibiotics.

glossary Monosomy When only one copy of a chromosome is present.

glossary Mitochondria The power plants of our cells. Membrane-bound organelles found in most eukaryotic cells, they generate the cell’s source of energy.

glossary Messenger RNA (mRNA) Type of RNA molecule with an important role in protein synthesis. Involved in carrying genetic information from DNA to the ribosome in the cell where proteins are made.

glossary Megabase One million bases or base pairs (1,000,000 b or 1,000,000 bp). In molecular biology, commonly used to describe the length of a DNA/RNA molecule.

glossary Lymphocytes Type of white blood cell important in the immune system. There are three subsets, T cells, B cells and natural killer cells.

glossary Leukaemia A type of cancer affecting the blood cells. It is named according to the type of white blood cell affected and whether it is chronic or acute.

glossary Knockout Often done in model organisms, knockouts are when specific genes in an organism’s genome are inactivated. This allows scientists to understand more about the role of certain genes and what happens if they are absent.

glossary Kilobase One thousand bases, or pairs of bases (1000 b or 1000 bp). In molecular biology, commonly used to describe the length of a DNA/RNA molecule.

glossary Karyotype An image of all the chromosomes from an individual cell. Used to check for large-scale chromosome abnormalities.

glossary Intron Part of a gene that is not used to make protein and is cut out from the RNA between transcription and translation.

glossary Infectious disease Disease caused by a microorganism such as a virus, bacterium or parasite. They can be spread from one person to another.

glossary Induced pluripotent stem cells A type of stem cell generated from an adult cell that has been reprogrammed to act like an embryonic stem cell.

glossary Inbreeding Reproduction resulting from the mating of a pair of individuals that are genetically closely related. Can lead to reduced fitness in a population.

glossary Huntington’s disease A progressive neurodegenerative disorder, caused by a mutation in a single gene called huntingtin (HD), which usually develops in middle to late adult life. The mutation results in neuronal cell death in select areas of the brain and causes uncontrollable muscle spasms.

glossary Hormone The body’s chemical messengers, carried in the bloodstream to tissues or organs. Important in many processes in the body, from reproduction to development.

glossary Homozygous An individual who carries two of the same alleles for a certain gene.

glossary Histone A protein found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, which is involved in packaging DNA into structural units called nucleosomes.

glossary Heterozygous An individual who carries two different alleles for a particular gene.

glossary Hermaphrodite An organism that has both male and female reproductive organs.

glossary Hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer A rare condition, but the most common inherited syndrome that predisposes people to early-onset colorectal cancer.

glossary Hereditary haemochromatosis Also known as iron overload disease, it is an inherited disorder in which iron accumulates in the blood because too much is absorbed by the intestines.

glossary Helicase Key enzyme involved in DNA replication, it is responsible for ‘unzipping’ the double helix structure by breaking the hydrogen bonds between bases on opposite strands of the DNA molecule.

glossary Haploid Term given to a cell with only one set of chromosomes, for example, the sex cells (sperm and egg).

glossary Haemophilia Disorder characterised by slow and inefficient formation of blood clots leading to prolonged bleeding and spontaneous internal bleeding.

glossary Germline The genetic material being passed from generation to generation through the germ cells (sperm and egg).

glossary Germ cells The cells that develop into sperm and eggs.

glossary Genome-wide association study (GWAS) A study that compares areas of the genome that commonly vary in different individuals to see if they are associated with a particular disease or characteristic.

glossary Genetic variation This is differences in DNA. Variation between individuals in their DNA is what makes them different.

glossary Genetic testing A tool for identifying changes in DNA that could increase the risk of developing a disease.

glossary Genetic screen Genetic screens are carried out to check for certain gene variants that could potentially increase the risk of disease in an individual.

glossary Genetic engineering / modification Refers to the direct manipulation of genes to alter an individual’s characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way.

glossary Genetic disorder A disease that is caused by a change in an individual’s DNA (also known as a genetic disease).

glossary Genetic counsellor Health professionals who inform and support people faced with the possible diagnosis of a genetic disease. They help patients to understand the disorder, the likelihood of developing or transmitting it, and how it could be managed.

glossary Genetic counselling Advice given to patients, prospective parents or their relatives before and after being tested for a genetic disease.

glossary Gene mapping This is when scientists identify the locations of different genes on specific chromosomes, a bit like pointing out key landmarks on a geographical map.

glossary Gene therapy The treatment of a disease by introducing modified DNA into the cells of the patient.

glossary Gene targeting This involves ‘knocking out’ a gene sequence from a genome and replacing it with an alternative gene sequence that has been generated in the lab.

glossary Gene expression The process of making a functional product from the instructions in our DNA. The amount of functional product produced is referred to as the “level of expression”.

glossary Fragile-X syndrome An inherited form of intellectual disability caused by changes to the DNA sequence in the Fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene on the X-chromosome.

glossary Fertilisation When the sex cells (egg and sperm) meet and fuse together, combining the genetic material from mother and father and creating new life.

glossary Familial adenomatous polyposis An inherited condition that predisposes patients to early-onset colorectal cancer, and some other cancers.

glossary Exon The part of a gene that has the instructions to make a protein.

glossary Evolution Adaptation based on the process of natural selection. Successful organisms survive and reproduce while unsuccessful ones die off.

glossary Eukaryotic A single or multi-celled organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Animals, plants, fungi and insects are eukaryotes.

glossary Endoscopy A test used to examine the upper part of the gut. A thin, flexible telescope is passed through the mouth, into the oesophagus and down towards the stomach and small intestine.

glossary Embryonic stem cells Stem cells derived from an early embryo. They have the ability to become any cell type in the body.

glossary Embryology Branch of biology focusing on the study of embryos and their development.

glossary Egg A female reproductive cell. Also called an ovum. Combines with male reproductive cell (sperm) during fertilisation.

glossary Ecology Branch of biology dealing with the relationships of organisms with each other and with their environments.

glossary Dominant The stronger version of a pair of alleles. Dominant alleles show their effect even if there is only one copy in the genome, for example the allele for brown eyes.

glossary DNA polymerase An enzyme involved in making new DNA molecules from the four nucleotide bases, using the existing DNA as a template.

glossary Diploid Term given to a cell with two sets of chromosomes, for example, most of our cells, apart from the sex cells (sperm and egg) and red blood cells.

glossary Developmental biology The study of the processes involved in controlling the development of an organism from an early embryo to an adult.

glossary Dementia Term used to describe a general decline in all areas of mental ability. It is caused by brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, or by injury.

glossary De novo sequencing When the whole genome of an organism is sequenced and assembled for the first time, without the availability of a reference genome.

glossary Complex disease Common diseases are caused by a combination of genetic, environmental and lifestyle factors. These may run in families and include diseases like diabetes, heart disease, and obesity.

glossary Colonoscopy This involves a doctor inserting a small camera into a patient via the patient’s bottom to view their colon and identify any abnormalities, for example, cancer.

glossary Cell division When one cell splits into two daughter cells, each containing the same genetic material.

glossary Carrier An individual who has inherited a genetic trait or mutation but does not display that trait or show symptoms of the disease. This genetic characteristic may be passed on to their offspring.

glossary Bone marrow The spongy tissue found in the hollow centre of bones. It contains stem cells which can develop into a variety of cell types, including red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

glossary Body mass index (BMI) A measure of body fat based on your height and weight.

glossary Bioinformatics The science of using computer technology to gather, store, analyse and merge biological data. Expertise in bioinformatics is key to handling the enormous amounts of data produced by the Human Genome Project and other sequencing projects, and serving it out to the researchers who use the data. Advances in computer research are as important as the biology for such large scale projects.

glossary Biodiversity The variety of different kinds of life, in the world or in a particular habitat.

glossary B-cell Also known as B-lymphocytes, they are a type of cell found in the immune system that produce antibodies to help tackle invading pathogens.

glossary Autosome A chromosome that is not a sex chromosome, for example chromosomes one to 22.

glossary Automation Making processes that were once done by hand, into automatic processes using machinery.

glossary Assisted reproductive technology A method used to achieve pregnancy by artificial or partially artificial means. For example, in vitro fertilisation (IVF).

glossary Apoptosis Also known as programmed or controlled cell death, apoptosis is when a cell commits suicide. It has an important role in human development and disease, for example, apoptosis helps separate our fingers into 10 separate digits.

glossary Antibiotic resistance When disease-causing bacteria develop the ability to survive exposure to antibiotics that were designed to kill them.

glossary Amphibian A cold-blooded vertebrate animal that characteristically hatches as aquatic larva with gills before becoming a terrestrial lung-breathing adult. Include frogs, toads, newts and salamanders.

glossary Alzheimer’s disease A degenerative disease that slowly and progressively destroys the brain. It is the single most common cause of dementia.

glossary Allele Different form of the same gene. In humans, alleles of particular genes come in pairs, and our characteristics are determined by the combination of alleles we have.

glossary Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) The final stage of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection when the immune system has been diminished to the point that the body can no longer fight life-threatening infections.

glossary Adverse drug reaction (ADR) A harmful side effect associated with the use of a medication that has been taken as instructed.

glossary Achondroplasia An inherited disorder affecting bone development that results in short-limb dwarfism.

glossary Embryo An unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of development.

glossary Vertebrate Animals with backbones.

glossary Antibody A protein secreted into the blood or lymph that binds to invading pathogens such as a bacteria, viruses and parasites. This then alerts the immune system to attack and destroy the pathogen.

glossary Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) A retrovirus that infects humans and attacks the immune system. Left untreated, HIV can lead to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

glossary Autoimmune disease A condition that occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys its own tissue.

glossary Antibiotic A type of medicine used to treat or prevent infections caused by bacteria.

glossary Diabetes An incurable condition where the body cannot control its blood sugar levels due to problems with the hormone, insulin. There are two forms of diabetes, type 1 and type 2.

debates Is it ethical to genetically modify farm animals for agriculture? Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of an organism’s genes to alter or enhance certain characteristics.

stories Fruit flies in the laboratory The fruit fly, also known as Drosophila melanogaster, has the longest history in genetics and research out of all the model organisms.

glossary Copy number variation (CNV) Differences in the number of copies of a particular DNA segment between two or more genomes. Variations in copy number have been found within individuals, between individuals and between humans and other mammals. CNVs can result from simple duplications of DNA segments or may involve complex gains or losses of similar DNA sequences at many sites in the genome.

glossary Red blood cell Doughnut shaped cells found in the blood. They are responsible for carrying oxygen to all of the organs and tissues in the body.

glossary Recessive When the allele of a gene shows its effect only if there are two copies in the genome, for example the allele for blue eyes.

glossary Malaria One of the most common infectious diseases and a global public-health challenge. The disease is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Malaria parasites are transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes. The parasites multiply within red blood cells, causing symptoms including anaemia (light headedness, shortness of breath, racing heartbeat), and other general symptoms such as fever, chills, nausea, flu-like illness, and in severe cases, coma and death.

glossary Genetic disease A disease that is caused by a change in an individual’s DNA (also known as a genetic disorder).

glossary Down's syndrome Also known as Down syndrome or trisomy 21, it is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra copy of chromosome 21. Often Down's syndrome is associated with delays in, or impairment of, learning and physical development as well as a distinctive facial appearance.

glossary Cancer A common genetic disease caused by mutations in our DNA that lead to uncontrolled cell proliferation and the formation of a tumour.

glossary Sickle cell anaemia An inherited blood disorder in which red blood cells, which usually carry oxygen, develop abnormally.

glossary Haemoglobin A protein that carries oxygen so as it can be transported around the body in our red blood cells.

activities Origami DNA This hands-on activity allows you to create your own paper model of a DNA double helix.

stories Tiny fish, big splash: the story of the zebrafish The zebrafish (Danio rerio) has become a popular model organism only relatively recently. It is a tropical fish from the minnow family with a genetic structure surprisingly similar to ours.

glossary Clone An exact copy of something. This can refer to whole organisms or cells but also molecules such as DNA. In sequencing work, small pieces of DNA are stitched into carrier molecules (vectors) that can be copied many times in bacteria or cells. Each copy is called a clone.

glossary Vector A vehicle for delivering genetic material, such as DNA, into a cell. Useful in genetic engineering. Often a bacterium.

glossary Enzyme Biological molecules, usually proteins that are responsible for thousands of metabolic processes essential to life.

glossary Uracil One of the four nucleotide bases that make up RNA (instead of thymine), pairs with adenine.

glossary UK National DNA Database A database holding the DNA profiles and samples of UK individuals. It is the largest database of its kind in the world and is continuing to grow each year.

glossary Thymine One of the four nucleotide bases that make up DNA, pairs with adenine.

glossary Sequencing The method of determining the order of letters or bases in DNA, or the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.

glossary Sanger sequencing method The first DNA sequencing method, developed in 1977 by Fred Sanger and his team.

glossary RNA A nucleic acid similar in structure and properties to DNA, but it only has a single strand of bases and instead of the base thymine (T), RNA has a base called uracil (U).

glossary Protein Large molecules made up of chains of amino acids. Proteins are essential to the functioning of our cells.

glossary Patent A patent is a right granted to an individual or company to protect inventions from being used or sold by other parties.

glossary Nucleotide Building blocks of nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. These are adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine in DNA, and adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil in RNA.

glossary Mutation A change that occurs in a DNA sequence. Mutations are relatively common in our DNA, but most have no detectable effect.

glossary Model organism A model organism is a species that has been widely studied, usually because it is easy to maintain and breed in a laboratory setting and has particular experimental advantages.

glossary Hydrogen bonds An attractive interaction between two molecules. Hydrogen bonds hold the nucleotide bases (A, C, G and T) together in the DNA double helix.

glossary Human Genome Project An international biological research project, launched in 1990, with the goal of sequencing the human genome for the first time and making the data freely available online.

glossary Guanine One of the four nucleotide bases that make up DNA, pairs with cytosine.

glossary Genomics The study of the structure and function of genomes.

glossary Genetics The study of genes and how certain characteristics are passed from one generation to the next.

glossary Generation time This is the average time between an organism being born and then producing offspring itself.

glossary Gene Section of DNA within the genome that carries the information to make a molecule, usually a protein. They contain the instructions for our individual characteristics, like eye and hair colour. In humans and other complex organisms, genes are split into coding (exons) and non-coding sequences (introns). These split sections allow some genes to make more than one type of protein.

glossary Electrophoresis Process by which fragments of DNA are separated according to size under the influence of an electric field applied to a gel or fluid.

glossary DNA sequencing The process of determining the order of bases in a length of DNA.

glossary DNA replication The process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its genome before it divides.

glossary Direct-to-consumer testing A genetic test that can be bought directly online. It allows consumers to access the information in their genomes without the involvement of a health professional.

glossary Cytosine One of the four nucleotide bases that make up DNA. Pairs with guanine.

glossary Cystic fibrosis A relatively common genetic condition in which the lungs and digestive system become clogged with thick, sticky mucus. It is due to a specific mutation in a single gene that encodes for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein.

glossary Complementary The preferential binding of bases A to T (or U) and C to G in DNA or RNA. For example, if there is a GTC on the DNA strand, the complementary RNA or DNA sequence will be CAG. This complementarity maintains the double helical structure of DNA.

glossary Codon Sequence of three nucleotide bases which, together, code for an amino acid during the making of a protein.

glossary Clinical trials Research investigations that specifically involve human volunteers. Set up to establish the safety and effectiveness of new treatments, such as drugs and vaccines.

glossary Chromosome A threadlike structure in our cells, made of a long DNA molecule, wrapped around a protein scaffold. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. Other organisms also have chromosomes, most bacterial chromosomes are loops or circles of DNA.

glossary Central dogma The process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a functional product, usually a protein. This involves the DNA instructions being converted to an RNA “message” which is then “translated” to produce a protein, a string of amino acids.

glossary Bases The basic unit of our genetic instructions: DNA instructions are encoded in the sequence of its chemical 'letters' or bases. There are four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). Another base, uracil (U) replaces T in RNA.

glossary Bacteria A type of single celled organism varying in shape from spherical, to spiral to rod-shaped. They are only visible under a microscope and do not have a cell wall, nucleus or organelles. Given the correct conditions bacteria can replicate very quickly and some are harmful and can cause disease.

glossary BAC library A collection of DNA fragments stored and cultivated in a population of bacteria, such as E. coli.

glossary Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) A length of DNA with sequences that allow it to be maintained and reproduced in bacteria. DNA libraries for genome sequencing can be made using BACs: the DNA of interest is inserted into the BAC, and the package is taken up by bacteria. As the bacteria grow and divide, the BAC and the DNA of interest is also copied. BACs were the cornerstone of sequencing the human genome; at the time, they could hold 100,000 - 200,000 base pairs of DNA (100-200 kb); now they can hold double or triple that amount.

glossary Autoradiogram An image on a piece of X-ray film that is produced as a consequence of exposure to a radioactive substance. For example, the banding pattern from an electrophoresis gel containing fragments of radioactively labelled DNA.

glossary Base pair Two bases on opposite strands of a DNA molecule that are held together by weak chemical bonds. In DNA's double helical structure, a base pair forms one 'rung' of the DNA 'ladder'. The rules of base pairing are that A always binds to T and C always binds to G. The bp is also the measurement unit of DNA; the human genome contains more than 3,000,000,000 bp.

glossary Amino acid The building blocks of proteins, there are 20 different amino acids.

glossary Adenine One of the four nucleotide bases that make up DNA, pairs with thymine (or uracil in RNA).

facts What is cystic fibrosis? Cystic fibrosis is a relatively common genetic condition in which the lungs and digestive system become clogged with thick, sticky mucus.

glossary Inheritance The process by which genes and characteristics are passed down from parent to offspring.

glossary Genome An organism’s complete set of genetic instructions. Each genome contains all of the information needed to build that organism and allow it to grow and develop. Our genome is approximately 3,000,000,000 base pairs long and is packaged into 23 pairs of chromosomes.

videos Malaria: An Introduction This video introduces you to the disease malaria, taking you through the life cycle of the parasite that causes it and why it is such a huge problem in the developing world.

glossary DNA A long molecule that contains our unique genetic code. It holds the instructions for making all the proteins in our bodies.

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